Perceived Control
Summary
The finding that perceptions of control and feelings of self-efficacy are beneficial and adaptive is robust. People with a strong sense of perceived control generally fare better (both mentally and physically) than do those who do not hold such beliefs. However, the relationships between health and aspects such as desire for control and maladaptive control beliefs are less studied. Some research suggests that there may be an adaptive level of control for certain situations, and that an individual's desire for control should be considered when explaining positive or negative outcomes. Research that aims to increase and/or maintain high levels of perceived control in adulthood and later life becomes an increasingly fertile area of investigation as the population ages. Whether effecting change directly in an individual, an entire social group, or through the restructuring or developing of institutions, hospitals, or communities, innovative ideas from a collection of fields (e.g., psychology, medicine, architecture) may change the way people age.
HEATHER R. WALEN
See also INTERVENTIONS, PSYCHOSOCIAL BEHAVIOR; LIFE SPAN THEORY OF CONTROL; SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION THEORY; STRESS AND COPING.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BALTES, P. B., and BALTES, M. M. "Psychological Perspectives on Successful Aging: The Model of Selective Optimization with Compensation." In Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences. Edited by Paul B. Baltes and Margret M. Baltes. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Pages 1–34.
BANDURA, A. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1997.
BANZIGER, G., and ROUSH, S. "Nursing Homes for the Birds: A Control-Relevant Intervention with Bird Feeders." The Gerontologist 23 (1983): 527–531.
BURGER, J. M. "Negative Reactions to Increases in Perceived Personal Control." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989): 246–256.
COHEN, S. "Control and the Epidemiology of Physical Health: Where Do We Go from Here?" In Self-Directedness: Cause and Effects Throughout the Life Course. Edited by J. Rodin, C. Schooler, and K. W. Schaie. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990. Pages 231–240.
FREUND, A. M., and BALTES, P. B. "Selection, Optimization, and Compensation as Strategies of Life Management: Correlations with Subjective Indicators of Aging." Psychology and Aging 13, no. 4 (December 1998): 531–543.
FRY, P. S. Psychological Perspectives of Helplessness and Control in the Elderly. Advances in Psychology, 57. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1989.
GATZ, M. "Stress, Control and Psychological Interventions." In Stress and Health among the Elderly. Edited by M. Wykle and E. Kahana. New York: Springer, 1992. Pages 209–222.
HECKHAUSEN, J., and SCHULZ, R. "A Life-Span Theory of Control." Psychological Review 102, no. 2 (1995): 284–304.
LACHMAN, M. E. "Locus of Control in Aging Research: A Case for Multidimensional and Domain-Specific Assessment." Journal of Psychology and Aging 1, no. 1 (1986): 34–40.
LACHMAN, M. E., and BURACK, O. R. "Planning and Control Processes Across the Life Span: An Overview." International Journal of Behavioral Development 16, no. 2 (1993): 131–143.
LANGER, E. J. "The Illusion of Control." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975): 311–328.
LANGER, E. J. Mindfulness. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1989.
LANGER, E. J., and RODIN, J. "Long-term Effects of a Control-Relevant Intervention with the Institutionalized Aged." In Readings in Social Psychology: The Art and Science of Research. Edited by S. Fein and S. Spencer. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. Pages 175–180.
LEVENSON, H. "Differentiating among Internality, Powerful Others, and Chance." In Research with the Locus of Control Construct: Assessment Methods. Vol. 1. Edited by H. M. Lefcourt. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Pages 15–63.
MADDUX, J. E. "Social Cognitive Models of Health and Exercise Behavior: An Introduction and Review of Conceptual Issues." Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 5 (1993): 116–140.
RODIN, J. "Control by Any Other Name: Definitions, Concepts, Processes." In Self-Directedness: Cause and Effects Throughout the Life Course. Edited by J. Rodin, C. Schooler, and K. W. Schaie. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990. Pages 1–18.
ROTTER, J. B. "Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement." Psychological Monographs 80, whole no. 609 (1966).
SCHULZ, R., and HANUSA, B. H. "Long-Term Effects of Control and Predictability-Enhancing Interventions: Findings and Ethical Issues." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 1194–1201.
SKINNER, E. A. "A Guide to the Constructs of Control." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71, no. 3 (1996): 549–570.
SMEDSLUND, J. "Bandura's Theory of Self-Efficacy: A Set of Common Sense Theorems." Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 19 (1978): 1–14.
WEISZ, J. R. "Can I Control It? The Pursuit of Veridical Answers Across the Life Span." In Life-Span Development and Behavior. Edited by P. B. Baltes and O. G. Brim. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Pages 233–300.
Additional topics
Medicine EncyclopediaAging Healthy - Part 1Perceived Control - Control And Self-efficacy, Correlates Of Perceived Control, Processes Of Control, Perceived Control In Aging