Transformation

Natural transformation is a physiological process that is genetically encoded in a wide range of bacteria. Most bacteria must shift their physiology in order to transform DNA; that is, they must become "competent" for taking up exogenous DNA. There appear to be two basic mechanisms by which bacteria can become competent for transformation. In some bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae and Bacillus subtilis, competence is externally regulated. These bacteria produce and secrete a small protein called competence factor that accumulates in the growth medium.

When the bacterial culture reaches a sufficient density, the concentration of competence factor reaches a level high enough to bind receptors on the outside of the cell. This event causes an internal signal to turn on the expression of the genes needed for transformation. Thus, competence development is controlled by cell density. There are a number of other bacterial functions that are similarly regulated, and these processes are collectively called quorum sensing mechanisms. In other bacteria, including Haemophilus influenzae and Pseudomonas stutzeri, competence development is internally regulated. When there is a shift in the growth dynamics of the bacterium, an internal signal triggers competence development.

Once competence is induced, three additional steps are required for natural transformation. After induction of competence, double-stranded DNA is bound to specific receptors on the surface of the competent cells. These receptors are lacking in noncompetent cells. The double-stranded DNA is nicked and one strand is degraded while the other strand enters the cell. This process is called DNA uptake. Finally, the recombination enzymes of the recipient cell will bind the single-strand DNA that has entered it, align it with its homologous DNA on the recipient chromosome, and recombine the new DNA into the chromosome, incorporating any genetic differences that exist on the entering DNA.