Eukaryotic Cell

Messenger RNA exported from the nucleus binds to a ribosome in the cytosol, which then proceeds to translate the genetic message into a protein. Some proteins, with their ribosomes, remain free in the cytosol throughout translation, but others do not. Those that do not remain free carry a special sequence of amino acids at their leading end, called a signal peptide. This sequence directs the growing protein with its ribosome to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the most extensive organelle in the cell. Here, the ribosome attaches and extrudes the growing protein into the interior, or lumen, of the ER. Attachment of numerous ribosomes gives portions of the ER a rough appearance under the electron microscope. The ER also synthesizes most of the lipids used in the cell's many membranes. Lipid-synthesizing ER does not have ribosomes attached, and so appears smooth.

Many of the proteins entering the ER lumen are destined for other compartments in the cell, and contain organelle-specific targeting sequences that direct them to their final destination. Most of these proteins are first modified by the addition of branched sugar groups to make "glycoproteins." Most proteins in the plasma membrane, for instance, are glycoproteins. The full range of functions of these sugar groups is unknown, but they may help the protein to fold correctly after synthesis, act in cell-cell recognition and adhesion, and promote appropriate interactions with other proteins.

Proteins are further modified and sorted in the Golgi apparatus, a set of flattened membrane disks that is continuous with the ER. Here proteins and lipids are packaged in vesicles that bud off and travel along the cytoskeleton to their final destination. Fusion of the vesicle membrane with the target membrane delivers the contents to the target organelle. Proteins and other materials that the cell exports travel to the plasma membrane via vesicles. Fusion of the vesicle with the plasma membrane delivers the contents to the exterior of the cell.